TASKBASED INTRUCTION

TASKBASED INTRUCTION

       Task-Based Language Instruction, is the second of the three articles published in this bulletin discussing the approach. The general overview that includes the definition and the rationale of task-based language instruction will be outlined. Then, how task-based language instruction creates effective learning processes will be presented.

A. The General Overview

         In brief, task-based language instruction can be described as a language course whose syllabus or teaching and learning activities are organized around tasks (Nunan, 1988a; Markee, 1997). Unlike conventional syllabuses that are oriented towards language as the primary subject-matter, a task-based language syllabus is oriented towards the process of language learning in the classroom (Crookes and Gass, 1993).

There are two types of categorization
         in that have been used for syllabuses: synthetic and analytic. In the synthetic syllabuses such as lexical, structural, notional/functional and the majority of situational and topical syllabuses, the language is presented in discrete pieces, one piece at a time. This breaking down of the language into small pieces is assumed to make the learning task easier.
           In this type of syllabus, language learning is viewed as a process of gradual accumulation of learned discrete linguistic rules until the whole structure of the language is built up. Learners are to „re-synthesize‟ the separate pieces into a complete language (Wilkins, 1976). In analytic syllabuses such as task-based, process and procedural syllabuses, language chunks are presented at one time, without the separation of the language into discrete pieces. Instead of using discrete linguistic items as units of analysis as practised in synthetic syllabuses, analytic syllabuses use tasks as organizing units. An analytic syllabus assumes that the learners are able to.

          perceive the regularities in the language exposed to them and acquire the rules by themselves. Learners are facilitated to employ their analytic capabilities in learning the language rules (Long and Crookes, 1993). A task-based syllabus is categorized as an analytic syllabus (Nunan, 1988a; Crookes and Gass, 1993).

          Breen (1984) categorizes the orientation of language teaching into two areas, i.e. equipping the learners with a communication repertoire or a communication capacity and developing capacities needed by a communicator. Task-based language instruction belongs to the second category. With the equipping orientation, the syllabus is organized on the basis of forms, functions, or situations. With the developing orientation, on the other hand, the syllabus is organized around tasks and what is emphasized is developing the learner‟s capabilities in applying, reinterpreting, and adapting the knowledge of rules and conventions during communication by means of underlying skills and abilities.

          Similarly, relating to Prabhu‟s (1987b) two procedures in education: equipping and enabling, task-based language instruction belongs to the enabling procedure. The equipping procedure refers to education whose aim is to equip the learners with the necessary knowledge, skills or behaviour patterns which are later needed in order to function in the society. Structural and functional approaches to language instruction belong to this category. Enabling procedures refer to education that aims at providing learners with the opportunity and support for realizing the learners‟ potential, in the form of understanding or ability.
          This procedure proposes the learners‟ future needs as varied and unpredictable. Hence, what is taught should not be specified on the basis of the learners‟ predicted future needs, but on the understanding of learning processes and of the learners‟ state at every stage. Prabhu, however, admits that relating some parts of the instruction to the learners‟ target needs may be advantageous.

          The primary reasons for orienting learning towards process (the use of language learning tasks) rather than content (linguistic items) may be summarized as follows. First, as argued by Long and Crookes (1993), the assumptions underlying synthetic syllabuses, in this case linguistic content oriented learning, contradict the findings of SLA research. They state that while synthetic syllabuses assume that what is taught is the same as what is learned and that organizing and presenting language materials as discrete parts is efficient, the findings of second language acquisition research indicate that acquisition is not linear through the acquisition of separate linguistic items; linguistic items are learned simultaneously with language. One cannot expect that students will acquire language rules in the same order as they are presented (see Ellis, 1985).

          Second, content oriented syllabuses such as the syllabus of a functional/notional approach to language teaching are frequently created upon hypothetical learner needs analyses (Foley, 1991). The syllabus contents are often sequenced without taking learner differences into account. Task-based approaches to second language instruction, on the other hand, argue that second language learning is basically an internal, self-regulating process that will vary according to the individual. Learning cannot be specifically controlled by the syllabus or the teacher. A teacher is not always completely able to decide what is to be presented next on the basis of what was just taught. A more sophisticated way is by continuously following the development of the learners at every stage. What is to be taught next, which route, and what processes should be undertaken are decided as a result of understanding the learners‟ state at every given stage (see also Breen, 1984).

           The third reason is derived from Vygotskyan psycholinguistics. Vygotsky (1962 cited in Foley, 1991) proposes that viewed from social context, speech is a means for maintaining individuality which can be achieved through three types of regulations in communication tasks called object- regulation, other-regulation, and self-regulation. Object-regulation refers to a situation where the environment directly controls the individual. Other-regulation is when a person is controlled by another person, and self-regulation refers to a state when people employ speech to control themselves and others. The last type of regulation implies that the person possesses a mature linguistic ability. However, it does not necessarily mean that the person fully masters the language; rather the individual with self-regulation ability is capable of recovering and utilizing strategies acquired earlier.

            Next, it is believed that language is most effectively learned and taught through the use of language in communication (Crookes and Gass, 1993). Through the use of task-based instruction, learning tasks are organized in order for students to get opportunities to use the target language in comprehending and conveying messages in their interactions with their teacher and classmates, and in understanding the learning materials. In performing a task, learners, in collaboration with their interlocutor(s), are engaged in a process of achieving a predetermined goal. In such a process, learners are facilitated to comprehend their interlocutor‟s messages and produce the target language for expressing themselves.

      In addition, from the input and interactionist point of view, participation in conversations that involve interactional modifications promotes learners to get the input they need for acquisition (e.g. Long, 1983; Pica, 1994; Foster, 1998). In her review of studies of negotiated interaction, Pica (1994) suggests that interaction promotes conditions and processes that are necessary in SLA. Task-based language instruction employs tasks that engage learners in interactions that are expected to increase the comprehensible input the learners receive and comprehensible output they produce.

       In its development, task-based language instruction has undergone some changes, particularly in its views of syllabus design and grammar instruction. In terms of syllabus design, there are at present two versions of task-based language instruction, strong and weak forms (Skehan, 1996; Markee, 1997). In the strong form:

... tasks should be the unit of language teaching, and [that] everything else should be subsidiary. In this view, the need to transact tasks is seen as adequate to drive forward language development, as though second language acquisition is the result of the same process of interaction as first language acquisition (Skehan, 1996, p. 39).
In the weak form, it is considered that:

... tasks are a vital part of language instruction, but that they are embedded in a more pedagogic context. They are necessary, but may be preceded by focused instruction, and after use, may be followed by focused instruction which is contingent on task performance (Skehan, 1996, p. 39).

       The strong version may be regarded as the original view of task-based language instruction syllabus design and the weak version reflects the changed form. According to the strong version, the learners are considered to be able to acquire the target language through task completions as in first language acquisition. In the strong version, tasks present language as a whole, not particular part(s) at a time as in language teaching methods or approaches with a synthetic syllabus (Long and Crookes, 1993). On the other hand, the weak version proposes a need to focus on form either before or after task completion or both. This form of task-based language instruction may also be used to teach pre-selections of linguistic item (Markee, 1997). What differentiates the weak version of task-based language instruction from communicative language teaching is that task-based language instruction allocates more opportunities for student activity and less explicit, up-front instruction (Willis, 1996).

B. How Task-Based Language Instruction Creates Favourable Learning Conditions

      A literature review (Priyana, 2006) looking at the learner language, the roles of input, output, and explicit grammar instruction as well as the significance of individual differences shows that a number of principles need to be considered in developing a sound second or foreign language instruction.
The principles include:

1. Making errors is natural and is considered as a part of the process in acquiring the target  language.

2. Exposure to comprehensible input is crucial.

3. Learning tasks facilitating learners to engage in interactions are essential.

4. Learners need to be encouraged to produce the target language as producing the target language facilitates learning.

5. Although language production may be encouraged from the early stage in the learning process, it is reasonable to allow a silent period.

6. Focus on form is necessary.

7. Second language teaching and learning pace should be made reasonable for both learners with higher and lower aptitude.
8. Language learning tasks should be varied to cater for the needs for both extrovert and introvert learners.

9. Learning tasks should encourage learners to attend to both meaning and form and be varied in order to accommodate learners with different learning strategy preferences.

10. Teaching and learning processes should foster motivation and minimize learner anxiety.

11. The choice of teaching and learning tasks and content (subject matter) should be based on learner age.

12. Learning tasks should arouse and maintain learners‟ learning motivation.
The following discussion shows how task-based language instruction reflects the principles in its practice. But first, it is necessary to look at frameworks for task-based language instruction.

1. Task-based language instruction framework

        The literature proposes a number of frameworks for task-based language instruction (for example Nunan, 1985; Prabhu, 1987a; Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996). The frameworks generally suggest that task implementation or completion involves three stages: pre-task, task, and post-task stages.

        The pre-task stage refers to the stage where the learners prepare for the task completion. In this stage, the learners may be:

a. exposed to the target language or provided with the language support that is necessary for the task completion (Richards, 1999; Willis, 1996; Skehan, 1996; Nunan, 1985; Prabhu, 1987)

b. given an opportunity to understand the task goal or outcome and procedural aspects of the task (Richards, 1999; Willis, 1996; Skehan, 1996; Prabhu, 1987a)

c. familiarised with the topic or schema (Richards, 1999; Willis, 1996; Skehan, 1996; Prabhu, 1987a)

d. given time to plan the task completion (Richards, 1999; Skehan, 1996).

       The task stage refers to the stage where the learners do the „main‟ learning activity that may include processing, producing, or interacting in the target language (Nunan, 1985). A wide range of tasks can be used. In this stage the learners perform the activity by themselves (Prabhu, 1987a). Generally the learners have to understand the task input in order to complete the task.


        Finally, the post-task stage is the phase after the main activity is completed. In this stage, the task outcomes are assessed and feedback is given. A number of post-task stage activities are possible such as follows.

a. Public performance: learners are to perform the task in front of the class or another group (Willis, 1996; Richards, 1999; Skehan, 1996), or teacher

b. Consciousness-raising activities (Willis, 1996)

c. Practice of words, phrases, patterns, and sentences (Willis, 1996)

d. Teacher-led work correction

e. Feedback delivery: the teacher gives oral or written feedback on the task outcomes and the accuracy of the learners‟ language

f. Doing a related task that can be completed right away or as homework.
Figure 1 displays an example of a task-based instruction framework from Willis (1996). This framework consists of three stages, i.e. pre-task, task cycle, and language focus.
          This framework is based on the belief that an effective language classroom should provide the learners with sufficient language exposure and opportunities for meaningful language use, generate motivation, and allow explicit language instruction.

Pre-task (including topic and task)
        The teacher introduces and defines the topic uses activities to help students recall/learn useful words and phrases ensures students understand task instructions may play a recording of others doing the same or similar task

        The students note down useful words and phrases from the pre-task activities and/or the recording may spend a few minutes preparing for the task individually Task cycle

Task
       The students do the task in pairs/ small groups. It may be on a reading/listening text
The teacher acts as monitor and encourages students

Planning
        The students prepare to report to the class how they did the task and what they discovered/decided rehearse what they will say or draft a written version for the class to read
The teacher ensures the purpose of the report is clear acts as language advisor helps students rehearse oral reports or organize written ones

Report
          The students present their spoken reports to the class, or circulate/display their written reports
The teacher acts as chairperson, selecting who will speak next, or ensuring all students read most of the written reports may give brief feedback on content and form may play a recording of others doing the same or similar task
Language focus

Analysis
          The students do consciousness-raising activities to identify and process specific language features from the task text and/or transcript may ask about other features they have noticed
The teacher reviews each analysis activity with the class brings other useful words, phrases and patterns to students‟ attention may pick up on language items from the report stage


Practice
          The teacher conducts practice activities after analysis activities where necessary, to build confidence
The students practise words, phrases and patterns from the analysis activities practise other features occurring in the task text or report stage enter useful language items in their language notebooks
Figure 1: Task-based instruction framework (Willis, 1996, p. 22)

2. How task-based language instruction creates favourable learning conditions
        Task-based language instruction creates conditions reflecting the principles listed earlier and other favourable learning environments in its three phases of task completion: pre-task, task, and post-task stages. In turn, how each stage creates the conditions is discussed. In addition how motivation is raised and maintained and how grammar is addressed will be dealt with.

a. Pre-task stage
         In the pre-task stage, comprehensible input is provided (principle 2) and language support including grammar is given (principle 6). As presented earlier, the pre-task stage basically refers to the stage where the learners prepare for the task completion. One of the activities in this stage is exposing the learners to comprehensible target language or providing the learners with language support (Richards, 1999; Willis, 1996; Skehan, 1996; Nunan, 1985; Prabhu, 1987a). The target language that is exposed is generally part of the task, that is its input. The language support that is given can be vocabulary and/or form that are necessary for the task completion.

         Task-based language instruction provides comprehensible input and ensures that the input is comprehended in a number of ways or mechanisms. First, task-based language instruction employs various oral and written text types with different topics that are relevant to the learners‟ needs. With regard to oral texts, learners are not only exposed to formal language like formal speeches and lectures, but also informal use of language such as chats. A proportional variation of genres with various topics will make quality language exposure for the learners (Willis, 1996).

           Second, in task-based language instruction, a task can be successfully completed only when the learners understand the input that is part of the task. This requirement encourages the learners to comprehend the input by employing various strategies, such as asking for help from the teacher or classmates. In this way, comprehensibility of language exposure in task-based language instruction is ensured. The completion of a task should follow the comprehension of the task input.

           Third, task-based language instruction ensures the provision of sufficient and quality comprehensible language exposure through the employment of authentic or adapted written and oral texts. When authentic texts are used, they are selected from those that are suitable to the learners‟ level of proficiency. When adapted texts are in use, various adaptation techniques such as linguistic and non-linguistic aids (Krashen, 1987), or text elaboration (Yano, Long and Ross, 1994; Ellis, 1994) can be applied.

          Fourth, task-based language instruction, especially the strong version, encourages the use of natural language (as contrasted to grammatically sequenced exposure). This allows the occurrence of particular linguistic items again and again. This mechanism offers a natural recycle which provides opportunities for the learners to hear and learn the previously encountered items many times (Krashen, 1987). In addition, this may serve as a reinforcement function.